A period of transition

In the last chapter, the Arabs tried again and again to conquer north India but in the end had little effect. The 11th and 12th centuries tell a different story: invasions by Turkic powers went much deeper into north India, despite stubborn resistance from Indian kingdoms. ('Turkic' refers to peoples, languages and cultures from a huge region across Central Asia, stretching to Turkey and Siberia.)

The chapter begins with one invasion and ends with another, with a short account of the wars and destruction they brought. But many Indian rulers also flourished: they sometimes beat the invaders (when they weren't fighting each other), sent naval expeditions, built amazing monuments and spread India's influence abroad. Many poets, philosophers, saints and scientists of this time still inspire us.

The book makes an important point about studying history. History has recorded war, conquest and destruction more than peace, good government or creativity, and historians everywhere have sometimes avoided the darker periods.

The book's approach: it is better to face these periods and analyse them, to understand what made them possible — and so help stop them happening again.

And one more rule: past events cannot be erased or denied, but it would be wrong to hold anyone responsible for them today. Two rules together: don't hide what happened, and don't blame people now for what others did then.

The chapter's timeline:

• 985–1014 — Rājarāja Chola I reigns.
• 1000–08 — Mahmūd of Ghazni attacks the Hindu Shāhis.
• 1010–55 — the Paramāra king Bhoja reigns.
• 1014–44 — Rājendra Chola I reigns; his naval expedition to Southeast Asia is in 1025.
• 1026 — Mahmūd destroys the Somnath temple.
• first half of 12th century — Angkor Wat is built.
• 1150 — Bhāskarāchārya writes the Līlāvatī.
• 12th century — the Kākatīyas rise.
• 1192 — Second Battle of Tarain: Muhammad Ghūrī defeats Pṛithvīrāja III.
• 1205–06 — Bakhtiyār Khiljī is defeated in Kāmarūpa.
• 1206 — both Muhammad Ghūrī and Bakhtiyār Khiljī die.