Europe: the plain and the Alps

Plains are huge flat lands formed by sediment deposition (layers of soil and sand laid down over time, often by rivers), known for fertile soils that support farming, trade and large populations.

The European Plain is one of the largest flat lands in the world, covering parts of several countries: low-lying land, gentle rolling hills, and several wide river valleys.

Its fertile soils make it one of the most productive farming regions on Earth. Wheat, barley, rye and potatoes are widely grown, and the largest share of the world's wheat comes from Europe.

Its rivers carried trade and transport; its coal, oil and natural gas fed economic growth; and its flat land and good climate let great cities grow: Moscow, Berlin, Paris, Amsterdam, Warsaw.

But the chapter adds one more sentence, and it changes the picture: "The European Plain has been the ground for major battles with many rulers jostling to take control of it."

The same qualities work both ways. Flat, fertile and easy to cross makes a region rich, and makes it easy to march armies across.

Southwest of the plain rise the Alps, a crescent-shaped range 1,200 km long, forming a natural barrier in south-central Europe, with peaks such as Mont Blanc.

The Alps have oak and beech forests lower down, spruce and pine higher up, and alpine flowers like the edelweiss (Austria's national flower, a member of the sunflower family). They feed the Rhine and tributaries of the Danube, giving drinking water, irrigation and hydroelectric power to lowland Europe.