Irrigation, technology and crops

Land, labour and the mobility of peasants were plentiful, so agriculture kept expanding into new areas. The monsoon remained the backbone of Indian farming.

But some crops needed more water, so irrigation systems were used. Babur (the first Mughal emperor) described the Persian wheel in Punjab, and the bucket and roller method elsewhere. The state also dug canals and repaired old ones, like the shahnahr in Punjab under Shah Jahan.

Farming technology was simple but effective: a light wooden plough with an iron tip, a seed drill pulled by oxen, and, more commonly, broadcasting (scattering) of seed by hand.

There were two main seasons, kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring), and most places grew at least two crops a year (do-fasla). The variety was remarkable: the Ain records 39 kinds of crops in Agra province and 43 in Delhi; Bengal alone grew 50 varieties of rice.

Farmers also grew 'jins-i kamil' (perfect crops), cash crops like cotton and sugarcane, which brought more revenue. New crops arrived from other parts of the world: maize (through Africa and Spain), tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes and chillies from the New World. Staples to eat, cash crops to sell.