The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Making Germany and Italy; the case of Britain
Trace how Germany and Italy were unified and how Britain's nation-state formed.
After 1848: nationalism changes sides. Nationalism moved away from democracy and revolution. Conservatives began using it to build state power. Germany and Italy show how.
Germany: can an army build a nation? In 1848, middle-class Germans tried to unite through an elected parliament, but the monarchy and army, backed by Prussia's big landowners (the Junkers), crushed them. Then Prussia took the lead. Its chief minister Otto von Bismarck used the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Prussia fought three wars in seven years, against Denmark, Austria and France, and won all three. On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the King of Prussia, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor. The new state modernised money, banking, law and courts, often copying Prussia. (Note: Prussia was one German state, the strongest, not 'Germany' itself.)
Italy: seven states. Italians were split among seven states. Only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, had an Italian ruling family. The north was under the Austrian Habsburgs, the centre under the Pope, and the south under the Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian itself was spoken in many local forms. Mazzini's risings of 1831 and 1848 failed, so the task fell to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont, through war.
How Italy was united.
- Cavour, the chief minister, was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat, and spoke French better than Italian. His alliance with France helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat Austria in 1859.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi led armed volunteers, the Red Shirts. In 1860 his Expedition of the Thousand marched into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south, won the peasants' support, and drove out the Spanish rulers.
- In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II became king of a united Italy.
- Rome was the last piece. Garibaldi's attack in 1867 failed against French and Papal troops. Only in 1870, when France pulled its troops out to fight Prussia, did the Papal States join Italy.
Many Italians knew nothing of liberal nationalism: southern peasants who backed Garibaldi thought 'La Talia' was Victor Emmanuel's wife!
Britain: a nation built slowly. Britain had no revolution; its nation-state grew over a long time. People first saw themselves as English, Welsh, Scots or Irish. As England grew rich and powerful, it spread its influence.
- 1688: the English parliament seized power from the monarchy and became the tool for building a nation with England at its centre.
- 1707: the Act of Union joined England and Scotland into the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain'. Scottish culture was suppressed: Highlanders were forbidden their Gaelic language and national dress, and many were driven from their homes.
- 1801: after Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen failed (1798), Ireland was forcibly made part of the United Kingdom. England had helped Protestants dominate this mainly Catholic country.
A 'British nation' was spread through English culture: the Union Jack, the anthem 'God Save Our Noble King', and the English language.
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