Doing political theory

This book deals with the origins, meaning and significance of familiar political ideas: freedom, equality, citizenship, justice, development, nationalism, secularism. In any debate we ask 'What does it mean?' and 'How does it matter?'

• In mathematics there is one definition of a triangle or a square. But equality, freedom or justice have many definitions. This is because they concern our relationships with other human beings, not things, and people have many opinions that must be understood and harmonised.

Socrates and reasoning. In ancient Athens, Socrates was called the 'wisest man'. He questioned popular beliefs about society, religion and politics, and was condemned to death by the rulers of Athens. His student Plato wrote about him; in *The Republic*, the character Socrates asks 'What is justice?'

• The dialogue opens with Cephalus, who says justice is to speak the truth and pay your debts. Socrates asks: if a friend in his right mind left weapons with you, and asks for them back when he is not in his right mind, should you return them? Cephalus and his friends come to see that their definition is inadequate.
• Socrates uses reason to expose the limitations and inconsistencies of a point of view, until his opponents admit their views cannot be sustained.

How many meanings can equality have? Start from everyday experience:

• When someone jumps a queue at a shop or a government office, we feel cheated, because we all want an equal opportunity to get goods and services we pay for. So equality means equal opportunity for all.
• Yet we accept special provisions for some, for instance for people with disabilities.
• And many poor people, such as day labourers cutting stones or carrying bricks, cannot afford to see a doctor at all. Many children work instead of studying; many girls in poor homes are pulled out of school to mind younger siblings. The Constitution guarantees primary education, but for them the right remains formal. Here equality must involve fairness: proactive measures such as decent wages, jobs and subsidised hospitals, with some agency responsible for them.

So the meaning of equality depends on the context. Starting from ourselves and then thinking of others, we find many layers of meaning: we have been doing political theory without realising it.

• Political theorists clarify concepts by looking at how they are used in ordinary language, and debate their meanings systematically: When is equal opportunity enough? When do people need special treatment, and for how long? Should poor children get midday meals to keep them in school?
• These questions are practical: they guide public policy on education and employment.
• Example (new): a school sports day where every child runs the same race shows equal opportunity; letting a child on crutches compete in an adapted event shows that equal treatment sometimes needs special arrangements.