Caste, tribal and women's movements

Dalit movements seek recognition, dignity, and an end to untouchability. The word 'Dalit' means broken or ground down. The Dalit movement has been called 'a struggle to be touched': a fight to be treated as a full human being, with whom others will share water, food and space.

There has never been a single, unified Dalit movement. There have been many, in different regions:

• the Satnami movement in Chhattisgarh;
• the Adi Dharma movement in Punjab;
• the Mahar movement in Maharashtra, led by Ambedkar;
• the Jatava movement in Agra.

Dalit literature gave voice to experiences of humiliation and protest. Some scholars describe the movement as mostly reformist, seeking change within society.

Backward classes united across many caste groups into a 'horizontal stretch': castes of similar status coming together for political mobilisation. By 1954, 88 organisations were working for the backward classes.

Tribal movements: Jharkhand became a separate state in 2000, carved out of south Bihar, after a century of struggle that began with Birsa Munda, who led a revolt against the British in the 1890s and became the movement's icon. Adivasis fought against the dikus (outsiders) who took their land, and against land loss to mines and dams. In the North East, tribal movements seek autonomy and protection of their identity.

Women's movements:

• Early organisations: the Women's India Association (WIA), the National Council for Women in India (NCWI) and the All India Women's Conference (AIWC).
• Women took part in peasant struggles like Tebhaga and Telangana.
• A second phase began in the mid-1970s, campaigning against violence against women and dowry, and for legal change.

In all these movements, identity, inequality and rights are intertwined.