Montane, littoral and swamp forests

Explain how vegetation changes with altitude and along coasts.

Himalaya: deciduous at the foot; wet temperate (oak, chestnut) 1,000-2,000 m; chir pine; deodar in the west; blue pine and spruce 2,225-3,048 m; alpine 3,000-4,000 m; tundra higher.

Pastures used for transhumance by Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotiyas and Gaddis.

Southern mountain forests: Sholas in the Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Palani hills.

Wetlands in eight groups; Chilika and Keoladeo are Ramsar sites (India now has about 90).

Mangroves: 4,992 sq km, best in the Sunderbans and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Up the mountain the forest changes; at the coast it tolerates salt.

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